Quick Answer
Education plans (529 plans, Coverdell education savings accounts) grow tax-free for qualified expenses; custodial accounts (Uniform Transfers to Minors Act (UTMA), Uniform Gifts to Minors Act (UGMA)) are irrevocable gifts to a minor; Health Savings Accounts (HSAs) carry a triple tax advantage while Flexible Spending Accounts (FSAs) lack the growth leg (no investment component).
The whole unit on one sheet: education savings, custodial accounts for minors, and health-related tax-advantaged accounts the exam loves to compare.
Which One-Liners Win Points?
- 529 contributions are not federally tax-deductible (many states give a state deduction); earnings grow tax-deferred, qualified withdrawals are tax-free.
- Coverdell covers K-12 with no dollar cap; 529 plans cap K-12 expenses (tuition and other qualified costs) at $20,000 per year.
- UGMA covers financial assets only; UTMA covers any property (including real estate); if real estate goes to a minor, the answer is UTMA.
Which Numbers Matter Most?
| Item | Value |
|---|---|
| 529 K-12 expense cap (tuition and other qualified K-12 costs) | $20,000 per year |
| 529 non-qualified withdrawal penalty (on earnings) | ordinary income tax plus 10%; the penalty is waived for death, disability, scholarship, military academy attendance, and coordination with education credits |
| 529-to-Roth IRA rollover: account open at least | 15 years |
| 529-to-Roth IRA lifetime rollover cap | $35,000 |
| Coverdell annual contribution limit | $2,000 per beneficiary |
| Coverdell contributor income phaseout (fully out) | $110,000 single / $220,000 joint |
| Coverdell contributions must end | before beneficiary turns 18 (waived for special-needs beneficiaries) |
| Coverdell age-of-use deadline | deemed distributed within 30 days of beneficiary's 30th birthday (waived for special-needs beneficiaries) |
| UGMA age of majority | Typically 18 (state law governs) |
| UTMA age of majority | 18 to 25 (varies by state) |
| Annual gift tax exclusion (2025 and 2026) | $19,000 per donor / up to $38,000 if a married couple elects gift-splitting |
| Kiddie tax tax-free tier (2026, unearned income only) | first $1,350 |
| Kiddie tax child's-rate tier (2026, unearned income only) | $1,351 to $2,700 |
| Kiddie tax parent's-rate threshold (2026, if higher than child's rate) | above $2,700 |
| HSA contribution limit (2026) | $4,400 individual / $8,750 family |
| HSA catch-up (age 55+) | plus $1,000 |
| HSA non-qualified withdrawal penalty under 65 | ordinary income tax plus 20% |
| FSA healthcare employee salary-reduction limit (2026) | $3,400 |
| FSA carryover option (2026) | up to $680 |
| FSA grace period option | up to 2.5 additional months |
Which Gotchas Trip Students Up?
- The Roth IRA MAGI phase-out does not apply to the 529-to-Roth rollover. The annual Roth contribution limit still does; the income limit does not.
- Student Aid Index (SAI) asset treatment: a student asset such as a UTMA/UGMA is assessed directly at a flat 20%; a parent asset such as a parent-owned 529 is first converted at a flat 12%, and that amount is then added to available income and assessed at progressive rates. Ownership, not the account type alone, drives the aid impact.
- The old "5.64%" figure is not a current rate. It was the net marginal effect of the two-step parent-asset calculation, not a bracket that today's 12% replaced. The 12% is only the first step.
- Whether changing the 529 beneficiary resets the 15-year rollover clock is an open question; the IRS has not issued final guidance settling it.
- Kiddie tax applies to UNEARNED income (dividends, interest, capital gains), not a minor's job wages; a summer paycheck is taxed at the child's own rate.
How Do 529 Plans and Coverdell Accounts Compare?
- 529 plan (qualified tuition program): state-sponsored, education savings plans generally open to any state's residents (prepaid plans typically require residency); two flavors, prepaid tuition (locks current rates, generally tuition and mandatory fees) and education savings (market investments, use nationwide).
- SECURE 2.0 529-to-Roth IRA rollover: excess funds move to the beneficiary's Roth IRA if the account is open at least 15 years (excluding the last 5 years' contributions/earnings), capped at $35,000 lifetime, subject to annual Roth IRA limits.
How Do Custodial Accounts Work?
- One custodian, one beneficiary; custodian owes fiduciary duty to manage in the minor's best interest.
- No contribution limit, but gifts above the annual gift tax exclusion may trigger gift tax reporting.
- Kiddie tax (2026, child with unearned income only): first $1,350 tax-free, next tier at the child's rate, above $2,700 at the parent's marginal rate if higher; age categories are children under 18, age-18 low earners, and full-time students 19-23 who do not earn over half their support.
How Do Health Savings and Flexible Spending Accounts Differ?
- Health savings account: triple tax advantage, requires a high-deductible health plan, portable, individually owned, investable, and a retirement account in all but name after 65.
- Flexible spending account: employer-owned, no growth leg, use-it-or-lose-it apart from the carryover or grace-period option.
One-Breath Recap
529 plans have no income or age limits, cap K-12 expenses at $20,000, generally tax non-qualified earnings as ordinary income plus a 10% penalty with exceptions, and roll excess to a Roth IRA after 15 years up to $35,000. Coverdell Education Savings Accounts add income limits, a $2,000 cap, an age-30 deadline, and broader investments. Custodial accounts (uniform gifts to minors for financial assets, uniform transfers to minors for any property) are irrevocable; the minor takes control at majority, and unearned income above $2,700 is kiddie-taxed at the parent's rate. Health savings accounts carry the triple tax advantage but need a high-deductible health plan and levy a 20% penalty before 65; flexible spending accounts lack the growth leg and are use-it-or-lose-it.
Need more than the recap? Read the full Special Account Types unit.